Ancient Rome
For modern historiography, ancient Rome encompass the founding of the Italian city of Rome for the 8th century BC, the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), Roman Republic (509–27 BC), Roman Empire (27 BC– 395 AD), and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire for 5th century AD.[1]Templet:Efn
Ancient Rome begin as an Italic settlement, when traditionally date to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber for the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grow to becometo the city and polity of Rome, and come to control it neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually control the Italian Peninsula, assimilate the Greek culture of southern Italy (Magna Grecia) and the Etruscan culture, come become a dominant power for the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. It be among the largest empires for the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.
The Roman state evolve from an elective monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, for it height it control the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea, and most of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant, and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It often de grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies when them sabi as the Greco-Roman world.
Ancient Roman civilisation done contribute to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalise and expand it military and create a system of government when them call res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as Nigeria.[2] It achieve impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the empire-wide construction of aqueducts and roads, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.
Early Italy and the founding of Rome
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Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome begin to emerge Templet:Circa.Templet:Sfn Large-scale organisation appear only Templet:Circa, with the first graves for the Esquiline Hill's necropolis, along with clay and timber wall for the bottom of the Palatine Hill when date to the middle of the 8th century BC. Starting from Templet:Circa, the Romans start to drain the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, where the Roman Forum de situated today.Templet:Sfn By the sixth century, the Romans done de construct the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus for the Capitoline and de expand to the Forum Boarium when de between the Capitoline and Aventine Hills.Templet:Sfn
The Romans themselves get one founding myth, when attribute their city to Romulus and Remus, children of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of Alba Longa.Templet:Sfn The children, sentenced to die, a wolf come rescue them and them return to restore the Alban king and find a city. After one small disagreement, Romulus kill Remus and become the city sole founder. The story date at least to the third century, and the later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro place the city foundation to 753 BC.Templet:Sfn Another legend, when the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus record, be say Prince Aeneas lead a group of Trojans for a sea voyage to find a new Troy after the Trojan War. Them land for the banks of the Tiber River and one woman when travel with them, Roma, torch their ships to prevent them from leaving again. Them name the settlement after her.[3] The Roman poet Virgil recount this legend for him classical epic poem the Aeneid, where the Trojan prince Aeneas de destined to find a new Troy.
Kingdom
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Literary and archaeological evidence de clear on the presence of kings for Rome, and this de attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.[4] Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, them retain a vestigial rex sacrorum, to exercise the monarch former priestly functions. The Romans believe say their monarchy de elective, with seven legendary kings who de largely unrelated by blood.Templet:Sfn
Evidence of Roman expansion de clear for the sixth century BC; by it end, Rome control a territory of some Templet:Convert with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.Templet:Sfn Them construct a palace, the Regia, Templet:Circa;Templet:Sfn the Romans attribute the creation of their first popular organisations and the Senate to the regal period as well.Templet:Sfn Rome also start to extend it control over it Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the Aeneid assert say all Latins come from the titular character Aeneas,Templet:Sfn a common culture when de archaeologically attested to.Templet:Sfn Attesting to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the Jus Latii—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area done de dominated by the Romans.Templet:Sfn
Republic
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By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of it Italian neighbours enter a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence imply some degree of large-scale warfare.Templet:Sfn According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, them establish the Roman Republic Templet:Circa, Templet:Sfn when them overthrow the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, and establish a system when base on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies.Templet:Sfn A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates be the two consuls, when de exercise executive authority together such as imperium, or military command.Templet:Sfn The consuls get to work with the Senate, when initially be an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grow in size and power.[5]
Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors.[6] Them originally restrict the magistracies to patricians, but later open am to common people, or plebeians.[7] Republican voting assemblies include the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), when de vote on matters of war and peace and elect people to the most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), when de elect less important offices.Templet:Sfn
In the 4th century BC, Rome done come under attack by the Gauls, who now extend their power for the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, defeat the Romans for the Battle of the Allia and march enter Rome. The Gauls loot and burn the city, then lay siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans been barricade themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agree to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold.[8] According to later legend, the Roman when de supervise the weighing notice say the Gauls de use false scales. The Romans then take up arms and defeat the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remark "With iron, no be with gold, Rome done buy her freedom."[9]
The Romans gradually subdue the other peoples for the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans.Templet:Sfn The last threat to Roman hegemony for Italy come when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlist the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus for 281 BC, but this effort fail as well.[10]Templet:Sfn The Romans secure their conquests by finding Roman colonies for strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.Templet:Sfn
Late Republic
chenj-amAfter them defeat the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires for the 2nd century BC, the Romans come become the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.[11] The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms bring the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, when been de rural, come become cosmopolitan. At this time Rome done become a consolidated empire—for military view—and no get any major enemies.
Foreign dominance lead to internal strife. Senators come become rich at the expenses of the provinces' ; soldiers, when mostly be small-scale farmers, de far away from home longer and no fit maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work.[12] Income from war booty, mercantilism for the new provinces, and tax farming come create new economic opportunities for the wealthy, and form a new class of merchants, when them de call the equestrians.[13] The lex Claudia forbid members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians theoretically fit join the Senate, them severely de restricted in political power.[13]Templet:Sfn The Senate squabble perpetually, repeatedly block important land reforms and refuse to give the equestrian class a larger say for the government.
Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, when rival Senators de control, intimidate the electorate through violence. The situation come reach a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes when attempt to pass land reform legislation when go redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Them kill both brothers and the Senate pass reform when reverse the Gracchi brother's actions.[14] This lead to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates).
Gaius Marius soon become a leader of the Republic, and hold the first of him seven consulships (an unprecedented number) for 107 BC by arguing that him former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no fit to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then start him military reform: for him recruitment to fight Jugurtha, him levy the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men enter the army. Them elect Marius for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome need a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, when de threaten Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome get a brief peace, during which the Italian socii ("allies" in Latin) request for Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus support their legal process but them assassinate am, and the socii revolt against the Romans for the Social War. At one point them kill both consuls; and appoint Marius to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.[15]
By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla be the premier military men for Rome and their partisans de in conflict, both sides jostle for power. For 88 BC, them elect Sulla for him first consulship and him first assignment be to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions be to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans manage him installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate. To consolidate him own power, Sulla conduct a surprising and illegal action: him march enter Rome with him legions, kill all those when show support for Marius's cause. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, when been run commot at Sulla's march, return to Rome while Sulla de campaign for Greece. Him seize power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and kill the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving him seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenge their partisans by conducting a massacre.[15][16]
Marius die for 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after him seize power. Cinna exercise absolute power until him die for 84 BC. After him return from him Eastern campaigns, Sulla get a free path to reestablish him own power. In 83 BC him make him second march for Rome and begin a time of terror: them execute thousands of nobles, knights and senators. Sulla hold two dictatorships and one more consulship, which begin the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.[15]
Caesar and the First Triumvirate
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For the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics come de restless. Political divisions for Rome split into one of two groups, populares (when hope for the support of the people) and optimates (the "best", when want to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrow all populist leaders and him constitutional reforms remove powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) when been support populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stress continue to build; Rome done become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups support the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrest and execute the main leaders.
Gaius Julius Caesar reconcile the two most powerful men for Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, when been finance much of him earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicised as Pompey), to whom him allow to marry him daughter. Him form them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). Caesar daughter die for childbirth in 54 BC, and for 53 BC, Crassus invade Parthia and them kill am for the Battle of Carrhae; the Triumvirate disintegrate. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtain immense wealth, respect for Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. Him become a threat to Pompey and many optimates come hate am. Confident them fit stop Caesar by legal means, Pompey's party try to strip Caesar of him legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.
To avoid this fate, Caesar cross the Rubicon River and invade Rome for 49 BC. The Battle of Pharsalus be a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, him destroy all of the optimates leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Them murder Pompey for Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar done de pre-eminent over Rome: in five years him hold four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. Them murder am for 44 BC, on the Ides of March, na the Liberatores kill am.[17]
References
chenj-am- ↑ Templet:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0674177284.; Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0719049422.; Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). American Republicanism: Roman Ideology for the United States Constitution. NYU Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0814780053.
- ↑ Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).
- ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 35. "Rex, the Latin word for king, appear for two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of Vulcan, and the other a potsherd when them find for the Regia".
- ↑ Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "Rome: The Roman Republic". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
- ↑ Magistratus by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
- ↑ Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). "Book II". The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 978-0192822963.
- ↑ These literally bu Roman librae, from which them derive the pound.
- ↑ [1] Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Camillus, XXIX, 2.
- ↑ Pyrrhus of Epirus (2) Templet:Webarchive and Pyrrhus of Epirus (3) Templet:Webarchive by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
- ↑ Bury, John Bagnell (1889). History of the Later Roman Empire. MacMillan and Co.; Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires Templet:Webarchive by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.
- ↑ Duiker & Spielvogel 2001, pp. 136–137; Fall of the Roman Republic, 133–27 BC. Purdue University. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Eques (Knight) Templet:Webarchive by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
- ↑ Tuma, Elias H. (1965). Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis. University of California Press. p. 34.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 William Harrison De Puy (1893). The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles. Werner Co. p. 760.
- ↑ Henry George Liddell (1855). A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire. p. 305.
- ↑ Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.